Defining social inclusion of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities: an ecological model of social networks and community participation.

Simplican et al. (2015) wrote a position paper. They asked, 'What does social inclusion really mean for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities?'

The team built an ecological model. The model has five levels: individual, family, neighborhood, service, and policy.

They say inclusion happens when two parts meet: close relationships plus taking part in ordinary community life.

The paper does not give new numbers. Instead it gives a map. The map shows how each level helps or blocks inclusion.

It also lists four next research steps. One step is to measure both relationships and participation at the same time.

Matson et al. (2009) counted real-life networks before the model arrived. Their review of 23 studies showed adults with ID still have only about three close ties and very low paid work. Clifford's model explains why those gaps stay stuck.

Robertson et al. (2013) mapped the same kind of small, dense networks that the model talks about. Their case-series found professionals and neighbors give most support, matching the model's neighborhood and service levels.

Bogenschutz et al. (2024) is the model's direct sequel. The 2024 equity agenda keeps the five-level frame but adds two new rules: work with people with IDD as co-researchers and check how race, gender, and poverty shape each level.

Cook et al. (2011) warned the field uses fuzzy words like 'social skills.' Clifford's model answers that call by tying every term to a clear level and function.

You can use the five-level lens today. When a client has tiny community contact, look beyond the person. Check family expectations, neighbor attitudes, service rules, and local policy all at once. Pick one level you can shift next week—maybe invite a neighbor or adjust staff schedules—then track if both relationships and participation grow.