Effects of reinforcement on standardized test performance.

Researchers gave kids tokens for every correct answer on a standardized test. They tested two groups: students with intellectual disability and typical fourth-graders. The kids took the same test twice—once with tokens and once without.

Tokens could be traded later for small prizes like stickers or candy.

Both groups scored much higher when they earned tokens. Students with ID and typical students both showed the same boost. The tokens worked like a power button for test effort.

Tracey et al. (1974) later showed reward tokens and cost tokens both cut rule-breaking and doubled math work in special-ed classes. Their finding extends McLaughlin et al. (1972) by proving tokens lift output even when you take some away for errors.

Davol et al. (1977) moved the idea out of school. They paid adults with tokens to reshelve library journals. Reshelving jumped and stayed high for almost a year. This shows the token trick travels beyond kids and tests.

MCMILLAN et al. (1965) sounds like a contradiction: extra reinforcers made pigeons peck faster but sloppier. They fixed accuracy by adding mild punishment for wrong pecks. T et al. avoided this speed-accuracy trade-off by only paying for right answers—no punishment needed.

If a student’s test score feels too low, try slipping a token or point on the desk for each correct bubble. You don’t need fancy tech—just a penny, sticker, or tally mark and a clear rule: “Right answers earn these.” The 1972 data say you’ll see an immediate jump for learners with or without disabilities.