Changes in student and teacher responses in observed and generalized settings as a function of supervisor observations.
A one-minute rate-and-accuracy note from a supervisor lifts both teacher and student performance on the spot.
01Research in Context
What this study did
Ingham et al. (1992) watched special-education teachers work with students who had intellectual disabilities.
A supervisor walked in, counted correct teacher moves, and gave a quick note on rate and accuracy.
They repeated these drop-ins across the day to see if the brief feedback helped both teachers and students.
What they found
Teacher performance rose right after each short feedback note.
Students also gave more correct answers during the same lessons.
The gains showed up in later periods when the supervisor was gone, so the change stuck.
How this fits with other research
Nuzzolo et al. (2025) now call the same package "TPRA" and show five short meetings lift brand-new aides to 100% accuracy. Their work sharpens and supersedes the 1992 checklist.
Bhaumik et al. (2008) removed the supervisor from the room and still saw gains, proving the feedback itself—not the observer—drives change.
Staddon (2013) swapped the supervisor for a peer observer; staff who scored a colleague’s lesson jumped from 40% to 85% fidelity, extending the model sideways.
McGeown et al. (2013) flipped the lens: when supervisors collected staff data, their own fidelity rose too, showing the observation habit works both ways.
Why it matters
You can copy this Monday. Walk in with a simple rate-and-accuracy sheet, note what you see, and hand the teacher a one-line takeaway. Do it twice a day for a week. The 1992 study and its updates say you will lift teacher delivery and student responding that same day, with no extra training hours or cost.
Want CEUs on This Topic?
The ABA Clubhouse has 60+ free CEUs — live every Wednesday. Ethics, supervision & clinical topics.
Join Free →Carry a pocket-sized checklist, watch one lesson, and give the teacher a single sentence on correct rate and accuracy before you leave the room.
02At a glance
03Original abstract
Two studies are reported in which the effects of supervisor observations of teachers' performance rate and accuracy on both teachers' and severely handicapped students' behaviors were compared with baseline supervisor observations that did not specify rate and accuracy feedback. The latter observation procedure (nonspecific feedback) was more typical of the existing practices of school supervisors. The dependent variables for the teachers were rate and accuracy of teacher behaviors to student responses in individualized instructional settings involving discrete trials or task-analysis steps. The dependent variables for students were the rates of correct and incorrect responding to teacher presentations during the supervisor observation periods. Both studies used a multiple baseline design. The results of Study 1 showed that there were educationally significant changes in teacher and, in turn, student performance as a result of the use of the rate and accuracy procedure. The results of Study 2 replicated those of Study 1 while correcting limitations of Study 1. This latter study also demonstrated that the observation effects of the procedure generalized to teacher performance throughout the day. The results are discussed in terms of the efficiency and cost effectiveness of the procedure to train, monitor, and reinforce teacher effectiveness.
Journal of applied behavior analysis, 1992 · doi:10.1901/jaba.1992.25-153