Human observing: Maintained by stimuli correlated with reinforcement but not extinction.

College students pressed a button to see colored lights.

Some lights always came before money wins. Other lights always came before no money.

The team ran four tests to see which lights the students chose to look at.

Students kept picking the lights that came before money.

They did this even when the lights gave no new information.

The money-linked lights worked like mini-rewards on their own.

Cooper (1997) used longer chains of lights and food. That study showed timing and the next light matter too.

Duker et al. (1996) found visual beats sound for keeping behavior strong. The 1983 paper adds that the link to reward, not the sense mode, is key.

Costa et al. (2025) showed rate, not size, keeps people going. Both papers say the same thing: how often reward shows up drives choice.

When you pick stimuli for clients, choose ones tied to quick wins. A praise word, token, or green light that always comes before a treat will keep kids looking, listening, and working. You don’t need fancy gear; just pair any simple cue with steady reinforcement and watch engagement grow.