This comparison draws in part from “Matching” (ABA Courses), and extends it with peer-reviewed research from our library of 27,900+ ABA research articles. The decision framework, BACB ethics code references, and cross-links below are synthesized by Behaviorist Book Club.
View the original presentation →Matching-to-sample programs progress from simpler to more complex discrimination forms, with identical matching at the foundational level and non-identical, cross-modal, and category-based matching representing progressively more abstract discrimination demands. Understanding the procedural and clinical distinctions between identical and non-identical matching is essential for correctly sequencing instructional targets, troubleshooting discrimination errors, and selecting the appropriate level of matching instruction for a given learner.
Identical matching — placing or selecting a comparison that is physically identical to the sample — requires only that the learner can detect perceptual similarity. Non-identical matching — selecting a comparison from the same category as the sample, even when the two stimuli do not look the same — requires conceptual grouping that goes beyond perceptual discrimination. The transition between these two levels represents one of the most clinically significant steps in matching development, and learners who plateau at identical matching require specific instructional procedures to support the emergence of non-identical discrimination.
| Factor | Evidence-Based Approach | Traditional Approach |
|---|---|---|
| Controlling stimulus relation | Identical matching: sample and comparison are perceptually identical; responding controlled by perceptual similarity | Non-identical matching: sample and comparison are perceptually distinct but share category membership or functional relation |
| Cognitive demand | Identical matching: perceptual discrimination; requires attention to shared physical features | Non-identical matching: conceptual discrimination; requires abstract grouping beyond perceptual similarity |
| Instructional entry point | Identical matching: first matching form targeted; appropriate for earliest visual discrimination learners | Non-identical matching: builds on established identical matching; introduced after identity matching is mastered |
| Error pattern differences | Identical matching: errors typically reflect position bias or insufficient attention to sample | Non-identical matching: errors often reflect perceptual similarity biases or undeveloped category concepts |
| Generalization requirements | Identical matching: generalize across novel objects with the same identity; requires varied exemplar training | Non-identical matching: generalize across novel members of the same category; requires multiple exemplars from each category |
| Functional relevance | Identical matching: prerequisite for PECS discrimination, picture identification, symbol use | Non-identical matching: supports categorization, intraverbal category responses, and academic classification skills |
The ABA Clubhouse has 60+ on-demand CEUs including ethics, supervision, and clinical topics like this one. Plus a new live CEU every Wednesday.
Use this framework when approaching matching in your practice:
Does the data support a need for intervention? Is there a meaningful impact on the individual's quality of life, safety, or access to reinforcement?
YES → Proceed to assessment NO → Document reasoning, monitor
A functional assessment should guide intervention selection. Avoid defaulting to standard protocols without individual analysis. Consider environmental variables, setting events, and private events.
YES → Select evidence-based approach matched to function NO → Complete assessment first
Goals should be co-developed. Assent and informed consent are ethical requirements. The individual's preferences and values matter in selecting both goals and methods.
YES → Proceed with collaborative plan NO → Engage in shared decision-making
This course covers the clinical and ethical dimensions in detail with structured learning objectives and CEU credit.
Matching — ABA Courses · 1 BACB General CEUs · $0
Take This Course →We extended this decision guide with research from our library — dig into the peer-reviewed studies behind each approach, in plain-English summaries written for BCBAs.
258 research articles with practitioner takeaways
252 research articles with practitioner takeaways
239 research articles with practitioner takeaways
1 BACB General CEUs · $0 · ABA Courses
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All behavior-analytic intervention is individualized. The information on this page is for educational purposes and does not constitute clinical advice. Treatment decisions should be informed by the best available published research, individualized assessment, and obtained with the informed consent of the client or their legal guardian. Behavior analysts are responsible for practicing within the boundaries of their competence and adhering to the BACB Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts.