Reinforcement of visual attending in classrooms for deaf children.

Clark et al. (1970) worked with a class of deaf children. The kids were 6-8 years old.

The teacher gave one M&M, one cereal piece, or one plastic token each time a child looked at her for 10 seconds. The study used an ABAB design: baseline, reinforcement, back to baseline, then reinforcement again.

When the treats started, looking at the teacher jumped at least a large share. It stayed above a large share while the rewards kept coming.

When the treats stopped, looking dropped right back to the first baseline. The pattern repeated in the second reinforcement phase.

Alba et al. (1972) tried grade points instead of candy in a university class. Points only worked when they were tied straight to the grade. Making points depend on earlier homework did nothing. The two studies line up: immediate or grade-linked rewards work; delayed or chained ones flop.

Dukhayyil et al. (1973) later showed that kids pick activities that give choice and instant candy. Their lab data back up B et al.'s classroom result: immediacy matters more than candy type.

Yuwiler et al. (1992) used high-probability request sequences to boost compliance in preschoolers with behavior disorders. Like B et al., they paired quick reinforcement with classroom cues and saw strong maintenance. Together the papers show that fast, clear consequences lift attending or compliance across ages and diagnoses.

If you run a class with deaf or hard-of-hearing students, keep edible or token rewards within arm's reach. Deliver one the moment you catch eyes on you. The 1970 study says you can double eye contact in a week. The pattern holds from preschool to college: make the payoff quick and certain, and learning time goes up.