Increasing the rate of presentation and use of signals in elementary classroom teachers.
A tiny rehearsal package turns untrained teachers into high-rate, high-signal instructors in days.
01Research in Context
What this study did
Three elementary teachers who never got formal training were the focus.
Researchers gave them a short package: first watch a model, then practice with a coach, then practice alone, then watch themselves on video and score their own work.
The team counted how many questions the teachers asked and how often they used clear hand or voice signals.
What they found
After the package, all three teachers doubled or tripled their questions and signals in just a few days.
The gains stayed high for weeks with no extra coaching.
One teacher went from 4 signals per minute to 12 and held steady.
How this fits with other research
Justus et al. (2023) shows you can get a similar boost with only a $3 hand counter and no coach.
Petscher et al. (2006) used the same training steps but added self-monitoring sheets for aides running token boards, and the skills stuck.
Mellitz et al. (1983) tried public posting of daily praise counts instead of practice, and it worked, but the effect was smaller and needed a wall chart.
Minard et al. (2026) swapped the live coach for delayed feedback after solo sessions, proving the package still works when no one is watching.
Why it matters
You can lift teacher talk and signals fast without long workshops. Give a model, let them rehearse, then let them watch themselves. The whole package takes one prep period and keeps working.
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02At a glance
03Original abstract
Two issues relevant to competency-based teacher training were investigated-the specification of acceptable implementation levels for validated techniques and the necessity and feasibility of providing training on those techniques. First, a descriptive study was conducted to collect data on two direct-instruction teaching techniques-rate of presentation and signalling-that have been demonstrated to be functionally related to child performance in earlier studies. Data collected on 13 teachers, who received intensive preservice and inservice training, were then used as a standard for comparison in a multiple-baseline design across three untrained teachers to evaluate the effects of training on the two techniques. The experimental study served to determine whether training on the two techniques was necessary; and, if training was necessary, whether a training package, including supervised practice, unsupervised practice, and self-critique, would result in adequate implementation levels for the two techniques. Low implementation levels during baseline for three untrained teachers indicated that training was necessary. With training, all teachers increased their levels of appropriately signalling pupil responses and accelerated their rates of presentation well above the levels of the comparison standard. Observations made one week and again four weeks after training ended showed that performance levels achieved during training were maintained.
Journal of applied behavior analysis, 1978 · doi:10.1901/jaba.1978.11-35