Treating problem behaviors maintained by negative reinforcement.
When your FA shows escape keeps the behavior alive, pick one of four clear roads: FCT, momentum, DNRO, or errorless learning.
01Research in Context
What this study did
McMillan et al. (1997) wrote a how-to paper for BCBAs.
They listed four tactics to use when a functional analysis shows problem behavior is kept going by escape.
The four tactics are functional communication training, behavioral momentum, differential reinforcement of other escape, and errorless learning.
The paper gives no new data; it is a map, not a test.
What they found
The authors found that no single review had put these four escape-based tools side by side.
They showed when to pick each one and how to mix them.
How this fits with other research
Kodak et al. (2003) later tested two of the four tools.
They ran DNRO and noncontingent escape with two children.
Both tactics cut problem behavior and raised compliance, proving the map works.
Phillips et al. (2019) added a fifth tool: diaphragmatic breathing.
It helped only one of three children; the rest still needed reinforcement.
This does not break the map—it just shows you may need more than breathing.
Fahmie et al. (2013) counted 435 FA studies.
That big pile of data backs the first step the 1997 paper urges: do an FA before you choose a tactic.
Why it matters
You now have a short checklist for escape-maintained behavior.
Run a quick FA, then pick one of four proven roads: FCT, momentum, DNRO, or errorless.
If breathing fits your case, try it, but keep the reinforcement roads open.
Use the list next time you write a behavior plan—it saves you from starting from scratch.
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02At a glance
03Original abstract
The examination of controlling contingencies in an analysis of problem behavior has been an important clinical topic of discussion in the field of developmental disabilities for many years. We know that problem behavior may be maintained by positive reinforcement or by negative reinforcement. From a clinical perspective, we seem to know more about behavioral techniques that are used when the problem behavior is maintained by positive reinforcement that we understand about those techniques that may be applied when a problem behavior is maintained by negative reinforcement. In this paper, we identify four treatment techniques that may be applied when problem; behavior is maintained by negative reinforcement: (a) functional communication training; (b) behavioral momentum; (c) differential reinforcement or an alternative escape behavior; and (d) errorless learning. Each of the four techniques will be defined, applications and guidelines for use delineated.
Research in developmental disabilities, 1997 · doi:10.1016/s0891-4222(97)00014-0