Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in children with developmental coordination disorder.
Kids with DCD show measurable executive-function deficits that track with poorer school performance—screen these domains during assessment.
01Research in Context
What this study did
Wuang et al. (2011) gave the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test to kids with developmental coordination disorder. They compared scores to same-age kids without motor delays.
Teachers also filled out a school-function checklist. The goal was to see if executive-function gaps line up with classroom struggles.
What they found
Children with DCD made more errors and needed extra trials to learn new rules. Their scores were worse on every key index of the test.
Lower WCST scores went hand-in-hand with lower teacher ratings of school function. Executive-function gaps tracked real-world classroom problems.
How this fits with other research
Dionne et al. (2024) extend the story to math. They show visuoperceptual skills explain part of the math gap in DCD, lining up with the card-sort deficits Yee-Pay found.
Chen et al. (2013) seem to disagree at first. Memory gaps in DCD vanished once verbal IQ was counted. This hints that some cognitive scores drop because of language, not pure executive function.
van den Heuvel et al. (2016) add teacher-rated behavior problems. Together the papers paint one picture: DCD brings cognitive, academic, and behavior risks that all show up at school.
Why it matters
If you assess a child for DCD, do not stop at motor tests. Run a quick card-sort or shifting game and ask teachers about flexibility, planning, and classroom independence. Spotting executive-function holes early lets you add visual schedules, rule cards, or motor-based EF drills to the intervention plan. Target both the body and the brain to keep the child on track in school.
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02At a glance
03Original abstract
The primary purpose of this study was to investigate and compare the executive functions measured by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) between children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and age-matched normal controls. A second purpose was to examine the relations between executive functions and school functions in DCD children. Seventy-one children with DCD and 70 children without motor problems were recruited from 14 public schools. Executive functions and school functions were assessed using the WCST, and the School Function Assessment--Chinese Version (SFA-C) respectively. Univariate analyses demonstrated significant between-group differences in five WCST measures. The logistic regression analysis showed differences between two groups on eight SFA-C subscales, and significant correlation between items measured on WCST and SFA-C was also found. The result of the study provides further evidence of impaired sub-domains of executive functions (i.e., mental shifting, flexibility) in children with DCD. The finding also adds to recent investigations into the relationship between executive functions and school functions in DCD. Implications for rehabilitation professionals and recommendations for further research are discussed.
Research in developmental disabilities, 2011 · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.02.021