Replacement behaviors for identified functions of challenging behaviors.
After an FBA, you have 40+ replacement choices—NCR and DRO are the most used, not just FCT.
01Research in Context
What this study did
The team read 176 studies on challenging behavior. They listed every replacement behavior used. They counted how often each one appeared.
The review covered all ages and diagnoses. No new data were collected. The goal was a master list of options after an FBA.
What they found
Forty different replacement behaviors showed up. Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) and differential reinforcement (DRO) were used most.
Functional communication training (FCT) was common but not the top pick. Many teams mixed two or more tactics.
How this fits with other research
Phillips et al. (2017) later tested NCR in 27 real cases. They found it worked for 14 of the kids whose behavior was social. This matches the review’s top pick.
Wilder et al. (2023) compared fixed and variable DRO schedules. Both cut automatically reinforced behavior. The review said DRO is popular; this study shows how to schedule it.
Gillberg et al. (1983) warned that early studies on stereotypy had weak methods. The 2011 review used stricter rules and replaced that old advice.
Stagnone et al. (2025) ran an FA then used FCT for repetitive speech. This shows the review’s point: pick the replacement after you know the function.
Why it matters
You now have a menu of 40 options instead of always choosing FCT. Start with NCR or DRO if the literature feels heavy. Then fine-tune using newer studies like Phillips et al. (2017) for dosing and Wilder et al. (2023) for scheduling.
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02At a glance
03Original abstract
Functional assessment has become a major feature of learning-based research. A critical element of the majority of these studies includes not only methods and procedures to identify the cause of the challenging behavior, but to establish replacement treatment methods. By far the most common intervention in the 176 studies we reviewed was reinforcement. Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) was the most common reinforcement method, followed by differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). Reinforcement plus extinction was the second most commonly employed treatment followed by functional communication training with or without reinforcement. Researchers proved to be very creative. Forty different treatment methods were employed. The implications of these data are discussed.
Research in developmental disabilities, 2011 · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.11.014