By Matt Harrington, BCBA · Behaviorist Book Club · Research-backed answers for behavior analysts
Consequence strategies are procedures applied following a behavior that are designed to modify its future probability. They include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, differential reinforcement procedures, and punishment. Function-matching means selecting the consequence strategy based on the reinforcing consequence that currently maintains the target behavior. An attention-maintained behavior requires a consequence strategy that withholds attention following the behavior and provides attention contingent on alternative behavior. Applying the same consequence to a behavior maintained by a different function can inadvertently strengthen rather than reduce the problem behavior.
Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the future probability of the behavior they follow, but through different mechanisms. Positive reinforcement involves the addition of a stimulus following a behavior — a preferred item, social attention, or access to an activity. Negative reinforcement involves the removal or reduction of an aversive stimulus following a behavior — ending a demand, removing a loud noise, or terminating an uncomfortable situation. Both are reinforcement because they increase behavior. Problem behavior maintained by escape from demands is negatively reinforced; behavior maintained by access to preferred items or attention is positively reinforced.
An extinction burst is the predictable increase in rate, intensity, or variability of a behavior that typically occurs immediately after planned extinction is implemented. It occurs because the behavior that previously produced the reinforcing consequence is no longer being reinforced, and the learner effectively tries harder before the behavior decreases. Practitioners should respond by continuing to withhold the reinforcing consequence consistently — stopping extinction at this point intermittently reinforces the behavior at a higher intensity. Preparing staff and caregivers for extinction bursts before extinction begins is essential. If an extinction burst involves dangerous behavior, safety planning must be in place.
DRA (differential reinforcement of alternative behavior) reinforces a specified alternative behavior while placing the problem behavior on extinction. DRI (differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior) reinforces a behavior that physically cannot occur at the same time as the problem behavior. DRO (differential reinforcement of other behavior) delivers reinforcement contingent on the absence of the target behavior for a specified interval. DRL (differential reinforcement of lower rates) reinforces the target behavior when it occurs below a specified rate. DRA and DRI are most commonly used for function-matched problem behavior reduction; DRO is used when any alternative is acceptable; DRL is used when behavior is appropriate at low but not high rates.
BACB Ethics Code 2.09 requires that reinforcement-based approaches be prioritized and that punishment procedures be used only when less-intrusive alternatives have been attempted and documented as insufficient, when clinical necessity justifies aversive consequences, and when appropriate consent and monitoring are in place. Punishment is never the first choice. When implemented, it must be paired with reinforcement of alternative behavior, monitored for effectiveness and side effects, and discontinued if data indicate it is not producing the intended change or is producing unacceptable adverse effects.
The schedule of reinforcement affects both acquisition rate and maintenance of behavior. Continuous reinforcement produces the fastest acquisition but the least resistance to extinction. Intermittent schedules produce more durable behavior that is more resistant to extinction. In clinical practice, new behaviors are typically established on CRF and then thinned toward more naturalistic intermittent schedules to promote maintenance in environments where reinforcement is less dense and consistent.
Documentation should specify exactly what consequence is applied following each targeted behavior, under what conditions, on what schedule, and what constitutes the relevant behavior topography. Language should be operational and specific enough that any qualified implementer could apply the procedure correctly from the written description alone. Plans should include the functional hypothesis that guided selection, antecedent modifications that accompany the consequence plan, crisis procedures for severe escalation, and data collection and decision rules that will guide program modification.
A token economy is an applied consequence system in which conditioned reinforcers (tokens) are delivered immediately following appropriate behavior and later exchanged for backup reinforcers — preferred items, activities, or privileges. Token economies apply conditioned reinforcement to bridge the gap between behavior and backup reinforcers when immediate access is not feasible, extend the effective range of consequence delivery across more behaviors and settings, and allow for more naturalistic fading of reinforcement density over time. Token systems have strong empirical support across educational, residential, and clinical ABA settings.
Consistency requires clear written procedures that specify what consequence follows which behavior with sufficient detail that interpretation does not vary across implementers. Staff training using BST should address the specific consequence procedures in each client's plan. Regular fidelity observation with immediate feedback is essential because verbal instruction alone does not produce consistent implementation. Team meetings that review consequence data and address implementation variations create shared accountability. Caregiver training extends consistent consequence delivery into the home and community.
Code 2.09 (least intrusive procedures) establishes the ethical hierarchy requiring reinforcement-based approaches to be prioritized over punishment. Code 2.01 (scientifically supported interventions) requires that consequence procedures have empirical support. Code 2.03 (informed consent) requires caregivers to understand and consent to consequence strategies. Code 2.11 addresses restraint and aversive procedures. Code 1.01 (beneficence) requires ongoing monitoring and modification when data indicate ineffectiveness or harm. Code 4.05 (supervision) requires that supervisees are trained and observed in consequence delivery before independent implementation.
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All behavior-analytic intervention is individualized. The information on this page is for educational purposes and does not constitute clinical advice. Treatment decisions should be informed by the best available published research, individualized assessment, and obtained with the informed consent of the client or their legal guardian. Behavior analysts are responsible for practicing within the boundaries of their competence and adhering to the BACB Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts.